E/A
Analog signals carry continuous, real-world quantities — temperature, pressure, flow, position, force — into the PLC as electrical signals. Where a digital input tells you a valve is open or closed, an analog input tells you exactly how far open it is, what pressure is behind it, and how fast the flow is. Mastering analog I/O means understanding the physics of transducers, the mathematics of signal conversion, noise immunity, calibration, and how every engineering value connects to raw counts on the backplane.
An analog signal is a continuously variable electrical quantity — voltage or current — that represents a physical measurement. Unlike a digital signal with two states, an analog signal can take any value within its range, carrying precise information about the real world. Understanding what analog signals are, how they are standardised, and why certain standards exist is the foundation of every instrumentation and control project.
Drag the loop current or raw counts. Watch engineering value, wire-break detection, and percentage position update in real time.
Change bit depth and accuracy. See how quantisation steps relate to the accuracy band — and when adding more bits stops making any practical difference.
Industrial analog signals are standardised to allow interoperability between instruments from different manufacturers. The dominant standards are 4–20 mA current loop (the universal process industry standard), 0–10 V (common in drives and HVAC), 0–20 mA (less common, no wire-break detection), ±10 V (motion control), and 1–5 V (older DCS systems). Current loops are preferred over voltage for long cable runs because current is immune to cable resistance — a 4 mA signal through 500 Ω of cable resistance still reads exactly 4 mA. Voltage signals suffer a drop of V = I × R and require high-impedance receivers to minimise loading error.
| Standard | Range | Wire-break detect | Max cable length | Primary use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4–20 mA | 4–20 mA | Yes (<3.8 mA) | ~1–2 km (0.5mm²) | Process instruments |
| 0–10 V | 0–10 V DC | No | ~100 m | Drives, HVAC, PLCs |
| ±10 V | −10 to +10 V | No | ~100 m | Servo / motion control |
| 0–5 V | 0–5 V DC | No | ~50 m | Sensors, embedded |
| 1–5 V | 1–5 V DC | Yes (<0.8 V) | ~100 m | Legacy DCS (NAMUR) |
// Signal standard comparison
//
// Standard Range Resolution Wire-break? Application
// ─────────── ──────────── ────────────────────────────────────
// 4–20 mA 4–20 mA — YES (< 4mA) Process, safety
// 0–20 mA 0–20 mA — NO Less common
// 0–10 V 0–10 V — NO Drives, HVAC
// ±10 V -10 to +10V — NO Motion/servo
// 1–5 V 1–5 V — YES (< 1V) Legacy DCS
// 0–5 V 0–5 V — NO Sensors, ADC
// Hart 4–20 mA ±0.1% YES Smart instruments
//
// Current loop advantages over voltage:
// Immunity to cable resistance: V_load = I × R_load (not cable)
// Max cable resistance for 4-20mA: V_supply - V_transmitter / I_max
// E.g. 24V supply, 12V transmitter, 20mA max:
// R_max = (24 - 12) / 0.020 = 600 Ω
// At 23 Ω/km (0.75mm²): R_max distance = 600/23 = 26 km (round trip)
// → 13 km one-way maximum cable length
//
// For voltage signals:
// V_at_PLC = V_source × R_input / (R_cable + R_input)
// At R_input = 100kΩ, R_cable = 100Ω:
// Loading error = 100 / (100 + 100000) = 0.001 = 0.1% (acceptable)
// At R_input = 1kΩ (poor design):
// Loading error = 100 / (100 + 1000) = 9.1% (unacceptable!)Every PLC analog input card converts the electrical signal (mA or V) to a raw integer count using its ADC. The PLC program must then convert this count to the engineering value (bar, °C, m³/h). This conversion is called scaling or linearisation. Getting this formula exactly right — including the live-zero offset for 4–20 mA — is critical. A scaling error of 1% on a flow meter means 1% of all flow is miscounted. On a 1000 t/h process running 8000 hours per year, that is 80,000 tonnes miscounted.
// Universal analog scaling function (IEC 61131-3 Structured Text)
// Converts raw ADC count to engineering value
// Works for: 4-20mA, 0-20mA, 0-10V, ±10V — any linear signal
FUNCTION SCALE_ANALOG : REAL
VAR_INPUT
raw : INT; // Raw ADC count from PLC input register
raw_lo : INT; // Count at signal minimum (e.g. 4mA = 6554 on 0-32767 card)
raw_hi : INT; // Count at signal maximum (e.g. 20mA = 32767)
eng_lo : REAL; // Engineering value at signal minimum (e.g. 0 bar)
eng_hi : REAL; // Engineering value at signal maximum (e.g. 100 bar)
END_VAR
VAR
span_raw : REAL;
span_eng : REAL;
END_VAR
span_raw := INT_TO_REAL(raw_hi - raw_lo);
span_eng := eng_hi - eng_lo;
IF span_raw = 0.0 THEN
SCALE_ANALOG := eng_lo; // Prevent division by zero
RETURN;
END_IF;
SCALE_ANALOG := eng_lo + (INT_TO_REAL(raw - raw_lo) / span_raw) * span_eng;
END_FUNCTION
// Usage examples:
// 4-20mA on 16-bit card (0-32767):
// 4mA → raw_lo = 6554 (32767 × 4/20)
// 20mA → raw_hi = 32767
// 0-100 bar:
// pressure := SCALE_ANALOG(raw:=AI_raw, raw_lo:=6554,
// raw_hi:=32767, eng_lo:=0.0, eng_hi:=100.0);
//
// 0-10V on 12-bit card (0-4095):
// temp := SCALE_ANALOG(raw:=AI_raw, raw_lo:=0,
// raw_hi:=4095, eng_lo:=-20.0, eng_hi:=80.0);Resolution is the smallest change the ADC can detect: span / 2^n_bits. A 12-bit card reading 0–10V has resolution of 10/4096 = 2.44 mV — it cannot distinguish two voltages closer than 2.44 mV. Accuracy is how close the reading is to the true value — it includes ADC quantisation error, gain error, offset error, temperature drift, and noise. A card can have excellent resolution (16-bit = 0.15 mV on 0–10V) but poor accuracy (±0.5% of span = ±50 mV) — the high resolution is wasted. Always specify both resolution AND accuracy for your application. For critical process control (custody transfer, reactor control), specify accuracy as % of reading, not % of full scale.
// Resolution vs accuracy — worked example
// 16-bit analog input card, 4-20mA, 0-100 bar
VAR
n_bits : INT := 16; // ADC bit depth
span_mA : REAL := 16.0; // 4-20mA live span (mA)
span_eng : REAL := 100.0; // Engineering span (bar)
resolution_counts : DINT; // Total counts in span
resolution_mA : REAL; // mA per count
resolution_bar : REAL; // bar per count
accuracy_pct : REAL := 0.1; // Datasheet: ±0.1% of full scale
accuracy_mA : REAL; // ±mA
accuracy_bar : REAL; // ±bar
typical_noise_bits: INT := 2; // Effective bits lost to noise
effective_bits : INT; // Noise-free resolution
effective_res_bar : REAL; // Effective resolution (bar)
END_VAR
resolution_counts := EXPT(2, n_bits) - 1; // = 65535
resolution_mA := span_mA / resolution_counts; // = 0.000244 mA/count
resolution_bar := span_eng / resolution_counts; // = 0.00153 bar/count
accuracy_mA := accuracy_pct / 100.0 * 20.0; // = 0.02 mA = ±0.02 mA
accuracy_bar := accuracy_pct / 100.0 * 100.0; // = 0.1 bar = ±0.1 bar
// Noise limits effective resolution
effective_bits := n_bits - typical_noise_bits; // = 14 effective bits
effective_res_bar := span_eng / EXPT(2, effective_bits); // = 0.006 bar
// Conclusion:
// Resolution per count: 0.00153 bar (theoretical)
// Noise-limited resolution: 0.006 bar (practical)
// Accuracy: ±0.1 bar (dominates everything!)
// → Despite 16-bit resolution, measurement uncertainty = ±0.1 bar
// → A 12-bit card (±0.05% accuracy) would be EQUALLY useful hereA transducer converts a physical quantity into an electrical signal. The sensor is the sensing element; the transmitter conditions the raw sensor output (often millivolts) into a standardised 4–20 mA or digital signal. Understanding the physics of each sensor type — and its failure modes — is essential for selecting the right technology and diagnosing faults without replacing working hardware.
Enter temperature to get PT100 resistance and thermocouple EMF. Or enter a measured resistance to calculate temperature. See the effect of 2-wire vs 4-wire connection and cable length.
See the critical difference between linear scaling and square-root extraction for DP flow meters. Toggle the calculation method to see how large the error becomes at mid-range.
RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) measure temperature through the predictable change in metal resistance. PT100 (100 Ω at 0°C, platinum) is the global standard: α = 3.85×10⁻³ /°C, range −200°C to +850°C, accuracy class A ±0.15°C at 0°C. Thermocouples generate a small EMF (40–60 µV/°C) from the Seebeck effect at the junction of two dissimilar metals. Type K (chromel-alumel) is the most common: 41 µV/°C, range −200°C to +1260°C — rugged and cheap but lower accuracy. Thermistors are semiconductor devices with large resistance change per degree — used for precise measurement over narrow ranges (e.g. −40°C to +125°C in HVAC).
| Type | Range | Sensitivity | Accuracy | Best for |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PT100 RTD | −200 to +850°C | 0.385 Ω/°C | Class A: ±0.15°C @ 0°C | Precision, −100 to 500°C |
| PT1000 RTD | −200 to +850°C | 3.85 Ω/°C | Same as PT100 | Long cable runs (high R) |
| Type K T/C | −200 to +1260°C | 41 µV/°C | ±2.2°C or ±0.75% | High temp, rugged, cheap |
| Type J T/C | −210 to +760°C | 52 µV/°C | ±2.2°C or ±0.75% | Legacy systems, lower cost |
| Type T T/C | −270 to +370°C | 43 µV/°C | ±1.0°C or ±0.75% | Cryogenics, food industry |
| NTC Thermistor | −40 to +125°C | ~3%/°C (@ 25°C) | ±0.1°C (narrow range) | HVAC, consumer, narrow range |
// RTD resistance calculation and measurement
// PT100 Callendar-Van Dusen equation (IEC 60751)
// Above 0°C: R(T) = R0 × (1 + A×T + B×T²)
// Below 0°C: R(T) = R0 × (1 + A×T + B×T² + C×(T-100)×T³)
// Constants: A = 3.9083×10⁻³, B = -5.775×10⁻⁷, C = -4.183×10⁻¹²
// R0 = 100 Ω for PT100, 1000 Ω for PT1000
// Simplified linear approximation (valid ±0.5°C up to 200°C):
// R(T) ≈ 100 × (1 + 0.00385 × T)
// T ≈ (R - 100) / (100 × 0.00385) = (R - 100) / 0.385
// PLC scaling from RTD transmitter 4-20mA output:
// Transmitter configured: 0°C = 4mA, 200°C = 20mA
FUNCTION RTD_to_Celsius : REAL
VAR_INPUT
raw_count : INT; // 0–32767 (16-bit card, 4–20mA)
T_lo : REAL := 0.0; // °C at 4 mA
T_hi : REAL := 200.0; // °C at 20 mA
END_VAR
RTD_to_Celsius := SCALE_ANALOG(raw:=raw_count,
raw_lo:=6554, raw_hi:=32767, eng_lo:=T_lo, eng_hi:=T_hi);
END_FUNCTION
// Thermocouple cold junction compensation:
// TC output = V_hot_junction - V_cold_junction
// Without CJC: if ambient = 25°C, K-type TC reads 25°C LOW
// CJC measures ambient temperature at transmitter terminals
// Corrected reading = TC_mV + CJC_mV(ambient)
// Modern transmitters perform CJC internally
// Error if CJC fails: ≈ ambient temperature error in reading
// 3-wire vs 2-wire RTD:
// 2-wire: cable resistance adds to measurement
// At 100m, 0.75mm²: Rcable = 24.4×2×0.1 = 4.9Ω → 12.7°C error!
// 3-wire: transmitter subtracts one cable resistance
// Error reduced to ΔR_mismatch ≈ 0.02Ω → 0.05°C
// 4-wire: separate excitation and measurement → zero cable error
// Use for laboratory and custody transfer accuracyPressure sensors convert mechanical force per unit area into an electrical signal. Gauge pressure sensors measure relative to atmospheric pressure — used for tanks, pipes, and hydraulics. Absolute sensors measure relative to a perfect vacuum — used for barometric reference and gas processes. Differential pressure sensors measure the difference between two process pressures — critical for flow measurement (orifice plate, Venturi) and filter monitoring. The sensing element is almost always a piezoresistive silicon bridge or capacitive membrane. Diaphragm area, material, and fill fluid determine range, overpressure protection, and chemical compatibility.
// Differential pressure flow measurement
// Orifice plate + DP transmitter: flow ∝ √(ΔP)
// This non-linearity MUST be compensated in the PLC
FUNCTION DP_to_Flow : REAL
VAR_INPUT
dp_raw : INT; // Raw ADC count from DP transmitter
dp_lo : REAL := 0.0; // mbar at 4 mA
dp_hi : REAL := 250.0; // mbar at 20 mA (max DP)
flow_max : REAL := 1000.0; // m³/h at dp_hi
cutoff_pct : REAL := 0.5; // % DP below which flow = 0 (noise)
END_VAR
VAR
dp_mbar : REAL;
dp_ratio : REAL; // dp / dp_max
END_VAR
// Scale DP transmitter output to engineering units
dp_mbar := SCALE_ANALOG(raw:=dp_raw, raw_lo:=6554,
raw_hi:=32767, eng_lo:=dp_lo, eng_hi:=dp_hi);
// Square-root extraction (flow ∝ √ΔP)
dp_ratio := dp_mbar / dp_hi;
// Low-flow cut-off: below cutoff, flow reads 0 (eliminates noise)
IF dp_ratio < (cutoff_pct / 100.0) THEN
DP_to_Flow := 0.0;
RETURN;
END_IF;
DP_to_Flow := flow_max * SQRT(dp_ratio);
END_FUNCTION
// Without square-root extraction:
// At ΔP = 100 mbar (40% of 250 mbar range):
// Linear scaling: flow = 40% × 1000 = 400 m³/h (WRONG)
// Correct: flow = √(100/250) × 1000 = 632 m³/h
// Error = 232 m³/h = 37% — catastrophic for process control!Linear position: LVDTs (Linear Variable Differential Transformers) provide highly accurate, robust position measurement with no contact wear — used in valve positioners and press monitoring. Potentiometers (resistive) are cheap but wear over millions of cycles. Magnetostrictive sensors provide 1 µm resolution over metres — used in hydraulic cylinders. Force/load cells use strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge: 4-wire excitation, 2-wire differential output (mV/V). A 100 kg load cell at 2 mV/V excitation with 10V supply produces 20 mV at full scale — requiring a precision amplifier. pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, and level transducers each have their own physics and calibration requirements.
// Load cell signal conditioning
// Full bridge strain gauge: 4-wire excitation, 2-wire signal
// Output: mV proportional to load
VAR
excitation_V : REAL := 10.0; // Supply to bridge (V)
sensitivity : REAL := 2.0; // mV/V rated output
capacity_kg : REAL := 1000.0; // Full scale load (kg)
raw_mV : REAL; // Measured bridge output (mV)
load_kg : REAL; // Calculated load
// ADC for load cell (typically 24-bit sigma-delta)
adc_raw : DINT; // 24-bit count (0 to 16777215)
adc_fullscale : DINT := 16777215;
adc_ref_V : REAL := 0.02; // ADC reference = 20mV = rated output
END_VAR
// Full scale signal:
// V_signal_max = excitation × sensitivity = 10 × 0.002 = 20 mV
// ADC must be configured for ±20 mV range (or use dedicated load cell ADC)
// Convert ADC count to load:
raw_mV := DINT_TO_REAL(adc_raw) / DINT_TO_REAL(adc_fullscale)
* (adc_ref_V * 1000.0); // Convert to mV
load_kg := raw_mV / (excitation_V * sensitivity) * capacity_kg;
// = raw_mV / 20 × 1000 kg
// Important considerations:
// Cable resistance affects bridge balance (use 6-wire for long runs)
// Temperature coefficient of gauge factor: ≈ 0.01%/°C
// Creep: load cell output drifts over time at constant load
// Hysteresis: loading vs. unloading curve mismatch ≈ 0.02% FS
// Shock protection: overload mechanical stop at 150% FS
// pH sensor:
// Output: ~59.16 mV/pH unit at 25°C (Nernst equation)
// At pH 7 (neutral): 0 mV reference
// At pH 0: +414 mV, at pH 14: −414 mV
// Temperature compensation: MANDATORY (sensitivity varies with T)
// Calibration: 2-point minimum (pH 4 and pH 7 buffers)
// Electrode lifetime: 6–12 months typicalRaw sensor signals are often too small, too noisy, non-standard, or electrically incompatible to connect directly to a PLC input. Signal conditioning prepares the signal for digitisation: amplification, filtering, isolation, linearisation, and impedance matching. Understanding what happens between the sensor terminals and the ADC explains most measurement errors and noise problems.
Adjust filter cutoff and order. See the time-domain step response and frequency response simultaneously. Watch how noise is reduced versus how fast the filter responds to real changes.
An instrumentation amplifier (INA) is the standard front-end for small differential signals. Unlike a simple op-amp, it has very high input impedance on both inputs, configurable gain with a single resistor, and high CMRR (80–120 dB). It is used for thermocouples (20–60 mV full scale), strain gauges (10–30 mV FS), and any high-impedance sensor. The gain resistor sets amplification: typically G = 1 + 50kΩ/Rg (for INA128). At G = 100 (Rg = 505Ω), a 20 mV thermocouple signal becomes 2.0 V — suitable for a standard ADC input. Bias current, offset voltage, and noise spectral density (nV/√Hz) are the key specifications.
// Instrumentation amplifier noise budget
// Application: K-type thermocouple, range 0-500°C
// Signal: 0 mV (0°C) to 20.5 mV (500°C) — K-type sensitivity 41µV/°C
// Required temperature resolution: 0.5°C → 20.5µV signal change
VAR
// INA128 specifications:
gain : REAL := 100.0; // G = 1 + 50kΩ/505Ω
en_density : REAL := 8.0; // Input noise: 8 nV/√Hz
bandwidth_Hz : REAL := 10.0; // Useful bandwidth after filtering
// Signal:
signal_mV : REAL := 20.5; // Full scale (500°C)
resolution_uV : REAL := 20.5; // 0.5°C = 20.5 µV
// Noise calculation:
noise_rms_nV : REAL; // Input-referred RMS noise
noise_rms_uV : REAL;
SNR : REAL;
bits_effective : REAL;
END_VAR
// RMS noise = noise_density × √bandwidth
noise_rms_nV := en_density * SQRT(bandwidth_Hz); // = 8 × √10 = 25.3 nV
noise_rms_uV := noise_rms_nV / 1000.0; // = 0.0253 µV
// Signal-to-noise ratio
SNR := 20.0 * LOG(signal_mV * 1000.0 / noise_rms_uV) / LOG(10.0);
// = 20 × log(20500/0.0253) = 20 × log(810,000) = 118 dB
// Effective bits = SNR / 6.02
bits_effective := SNR / 6.02; // = 118/6.02 = 19.6 effective bits
// Conclusion: INA128 noise is far below the 20.5 µV resolution target
// The ADC (12-bit = 72 dB SNR) is the limiting factor, not the amp
// Use ≥ 16-bit ADC to exploit the INA's low noise performanceFilters remove unwanted frequency content from the signal. In analog I/O, you need to remove: 50/60 Hz mains hum (from power cables), high-frequency switching noise from VFDs (2–20 kHz), and broadband thermal/shot noise. Hardware RC filters before the ADC are mandatory to prevent aliasing — the Nyquist theorem requires the anti-aliasing filter cutoff to be below half the ADC sample rate. Digital filters (moving average, IIR, Kalman) in the PLC add additional noise rejection with no hardware cost but add latency — critical for fast control loops.
// Anti-aliasing filter design
// ADC sample rate: 1000 Hz (1ms cycle PLC analog scan)
// Nyquist frequency: 500 Hz
// Anti-aliasing filter must attenuate signals above 500 Hz
// Choose cutoff fc = 100 Hz (5× safety margin)
// RC filter: R = 1/(2π×fc×C)
// Choose C = 100nF: R = 1/(2π×100×100e-9) = 15.9 kΩ → use 16kΩ
// Actual fc = 1/(2π×16000×100e-9) = 99.5 Hz ≈ 100 Hz
// Attenuation at 500 Hz (Nyquist): 20×log(fc/f) = 20×log(100/500) = -14 dB
// Not enough! For 1% alias rejection need > -40 dB at 500 Hz
// → Need 2nd order filter or lower fc
// 2nd order Sallen-Key: -40 dB/decade → -40 dB at 10×fc = 1 kHz
// Set fc = 50 Hz: -40 dB at 500 Hz ✓ (aliasing suppressed)
// Digital moving average filter in PLC:
FUNCTION MA_Filter : REAL
VAR_INPUT
new_sample : REAL;
n_samples : INT := 16; // Averaging window
END_VAR
VAR_IN_OUT
buffer : ARRAY[0..31] OF REAL;
index : INT;
sum : REAL;
END_VAR
sum := sum - buffer[index] + new_sample;
buffer[index] := new_sample;
index := (index + 1) MOD n_samples;
MA_Filter := sum / INT_TO_REAL(n_samples);
END_FUNCTION
// Exponential filter (IIR first-order) — better for control loops:
// y[n] = α × x[n] + (1-α) × y[n-1]
// α = Tscan / (τ_filter + Tscan)
// For τ = 500ms, Tscan = 10ms: α = 10/(500+10) = 0.0196
// Time constant maintained regardless of scan time changes
FUNCTION EXP_Filter : REAL
VAR_INPUT
new_val : REAL;
tau_ms : REAL := 500.0; // Filter time constant (ms)
scan_ms : REAL := 10.0; // PLC scan time (ms)
END_VAR
VAR_IN_OUT
prev_out : REAL;
END_VAR
VAR
alpha : REAL;
END_VAR
alpha := scan_ms / (tau_ms + scan_ms);
prev_out := alpha * new_val + (1.0 - alpha) * prev_out;
EXP_Filter := prev_out;
END_FUNCTIONGalvanic isolation breaks the electrical connection between field and control system while allowing signal to pass — through transformers, optocouplers, or capacitors. Essential when field devices have different ground potentials (prevents ground loops), when explosive atmospheres require intrinsic safety barriers, and when high-voltage transients may appear on field wiring. The HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) protocol superimposes a ±0.5 mA FSK digital signal (1200/2200 Hz) on the 4–20 mA loop. The average current is unchanged (no effect on the 4–20 mA measurement), but a HART modem can read device identification, calibration data, diagnostics, and secondary variables from smart transmitters.
// HART protocol — what data is accessible
// HART commands (subset of most useful):
//
// CMD 0: Read unique identifier (manufacturer, device type, serial)
// CMD 1: Read primary variable (PV) and units
// CMD 2: Read PV, % range, loop current, span
// CMD 3: Read dynamic variables (PV, SV, TV, QV)
// CMD 12: Read message (user-defined string)
// CMD 13: Read tag, descriptor, date
// CMD 14: Read transducer information (serial, limits, unit code)
// CMD 15: Read device info (range values, signal code)
// CMD 17: Write message
// CMD 35: Write primary variable range values (recalibrate)
// CMD 44: Write primary variable units
// CMD 45: Trim primary variable zero
// CMD 46: Trim primary variable gain
//
// HART modem in PLC (e.g. Siemens AI module with integrated HART):
// Reads CMD 3 data automatically every 500ms
// Results available in extended I/O data area:
VAR
// From HART extended data block:
pv_value : REAL; // Primary variable (same as 4-20mA value)
sv_value : REAL; // Secondary variable (e.g. temperature from DP cell)
loop_mA : REAL; // Actual loop current (diagnostic)
device_status: WORD; // Device health flags
// Bit 0: Primary variable out of limits
// Bit 1: Non-primary variable out of limits
// Bit 2: Loop current saturated
// Bit 4: More status available
// Bit 5: Cold start (device just powered)
// Bit 7: Device malfunction
END_VAR
// HART wire-break detection:
// If transmitter fails: loop_mA → 0 or > 21.5 mA (NAMUR NE43)
// NAMUR NE43 alarm levels:
// < 3.6 mA: sensor/cable failure → substitute value DOWN
// > 21.0 mA: sensor/cable failure → substitute value UP
// These saturate the 4-20mA output to signal the failureReading an analog input and writing an analog output require more careful programming than digital I/O. Every analog channel needs scaling, filtering, clamping, and alarm monitoring. Analog outputs need rate limiting, safe-state handling, and bumpless transfer between manual and automatic modes.
Simulate a live analog process with noise, drift, and fault injection. Watch scaling, filtering, alarms, and wire-break detection react in real time exactly as the AI_Process function block does.
A simulated pressure vessel with an inlet control valve (AO) and a pressure transmitter (AI). Tune the PID, change the setpoint, inject load disturbances, and watch the closed-loop response.
A production-quality analog input processing block does more than scale counts to engineering units. It applies a filter, detects wire-break (for 4–20 mA), applies high/low alarms, clamps the output to safe limits, and provides a substitute value when the sensor fails. This block is called once per input channel, every scan. Implementing it as a function block allows identical, auditable processing for every analog channel.
// Analog Input Processing Function Block
// Complete production-quality implementation
FUNCTION_BLOCK AI_Process
VAR_INPUT
raw_count : INT; // PLC hardware input register
raw_lo : INT := 6554; // Count at 4 mA
raw_hi : INT := 32767; // Count at 20 mA
eng_lo : REAL := 0.0;
eng_hi : REAL := 100.0;
filter_tau : REAL := 1000.0; // ms filter time constant
scan_ms : REAL := 10.0; // PLC scan time ms
alarm_hi : REAL := 95.0; // High alarm threshold
alarm_lo : REAL := 5.0; // Low alarm threshold
sub_value : REAL := 50.0; // Substitute value on fault
enable : BOOL := TRUE;
END_VAR
VAR_OUTPUT
pv : REAL; // Process value (engineering units)
pv_raw : REAL; // Unfiltered value
alarm_H : BOOL; // High alarm active
alarm_L : BOOL; // Low alarm active
wire_break : BOOL; // Wire break / under-range detected
status_ok : BOOL; // Channel healthy
END_VAR
VAR
pv_filt : REAL; // Internal filter state
alpha : REAL;
span_raw : REAL;
span_eng : REAL;
WIRE_BREAK_THRESHOLD : INT := 5000; // Below this = wire break
END_VAR
IF NOT enable THEN
pv := sub_value; status_ok := FALSE; RETURN;
END_IF;
// Wire break detection (4-20mA only)
wire_break := raw_count < WIRE_BREAK_THRESHOLD;
IF wire_break THEN
pv := sub_value; status_ok := FALSE;
alarm_H := FALSE; alarm_L := FALSE;
RETURN;
END_IF;
// Scaling
span_raw := INT_TO_REAL(raw_hi - raw_lo);
span_eng := eng_hi - eng_lo;
pv_raw := eng_lo + (INT_TO_REAL(raw_count - raw_lo) / span_raw) * span_eng;
// Clamp to slightly beyond range (allow ±5% over/under-range)
pv_raw := LIMIT(eng_lo - 0.05*span_eng, pv_raw, eng_hi + 0.05*span_eng);
// Exponential filter
alpha := scan_ms / (filter_tau + scan_ms);
pv_filt := alpha * pv_raw + (1.0 - alpha) * pv_filt;
pv := pv_filt;
// Alarms (with 1% hysteresis)
alarm_H := pv >= alarm_hi OR (alarm_H AND pv > alarm_hi * 0.99);
alarm_L := pv <= alarm_lo OR (alarm_L AND pv < alarm_lo * 1.01);
status_ok := TRUE;
END_FUNCTION_BLOCKAnalog outputs need special care. A sudden step change in output (e.g. valve jumps from 0% to 100%) causes hydraulic hammer, mechanical shock, or process upsets. Rate limiting prevents this. On PLC fault or CPU stop, the output must go to a defined safe state (typically 4 mA = 0% or the last good value held). Bumpless transfer ensures smooth changeover between manual and automatic mode — the integrator output is pre-loaded with the current manual setpoint before switching to auto, preventing a step change.
// Analog Output Processing Function Block
FUNCTION_BLOCK AO_Process
VAR_INPUT
setpoint_eng : REAL; // Commanded value (engineering units)
eng_lo : REAL := 0.0;
eng_hi : REAL := 100.0;
raw_lo : INT := 6554; // DAC count at 4 mA
raw_hi : INT := 32767; // DAC count at 20 mA
rate_limit : REAL := 10.0; // Max change per second (eng units/s)
scan_ms : REAL := 10.0;
safe_value : REAL := 0.0; // Output on fault
fault_active : BOOL := FALSE;
END_VAR
VAR_OUTPUT
raw_out : INT; // Write to PLC hardware output register
actual_eng : REAL; // Actual output in engineering units
END_VAR
VAR
limited_sp : REAL; // Rate-limited setpoint
max_step : REAL; // Max step this scan
span_raw : REAL;
span_eng : REAL;
END_VAR
// On fault: safe state
IF fault_active THEN
actual_eng := safe_value;
limited_sp := safe_value; // Reset rate limiter state
// Convert to raw and write
span_raw := INT_TO_REAL(raw_hi - raw_lo);
span_eng := eng_hi - eng_lo;
raw_out := raw_lo + REAL_TO_INT((actual_eng - eng_lo) / span_eng * span_raw);
RETURN;
END_IF;
// Rate limiting
max_step := rate_limit * scan_ms / 1000.0; // Per scan
limited_sp := LIMIT(limited_sp - max_step,
setpoint_eng,
limited_sp + max_step);
actual_eng := limited_sp;
// Clamp to output range
actual_eng := LIMIT(eng_lo, actual_eng, eng_hi);
// Scale to DAC counts
span_raw := INT_TO_REAL(raw_hi - raw_lo);
span_eng := eng_hi - eng_lo;
raw_out := raw_lo + REAL_TO_INT(
(actual_eng - eng_lo) / span_eng * span_raw);
END_FUNCTION_BLOCKThe most common use of analog I/O is closing a control loop: measure a process variable (temperature, pressure, level), compare to setpoint, compute a correction, and drive a final control element (valve, heater, pump speed). IEC 61131-3 provides the CONT_C (Continuous Controller) function block. Understanding PID tuning — Kp, Ti, Td, and their interaction with process dynamics — is the core skill of process control engineering.
// PID control loop — pressure control example
// PV: pressure transmitter 0-10 bar (4-20mA)
// MV: control valve 0-100% (4-20mA positioner)
VAR
pressure_AI : AI_Process; // Analog input function block
valve_AO : AO_Process; // Analog output function block
pid : PID;
// PID parameters (tune for process):
Kp : REAL := 1.5; // Proportional gain
Ti : REAL := 30.0; // Integral time (s) — reset time
Td : REAL := 3.0; // Derivative time (s) — rate time
Tscan : REAL := 0.1; // PLC cycle time (s) = 100ms
// Setpoint and mode
pressure_sp : REAL := 5.0; // Bar setpoint
auto_mode : BOOL := TRUE;
manual_output: REAL := 50.0; // % valve open in manual
// Outputs
valve_pct : REAL; // 0-100% valve demand
END_VAR
// 1. Read and process analog input
pressure_AI(raw_count:=AI_pressure_raw, eng_lo:=0.0, eng_hi:=10.0,
alarm_hi:=9.5, alarm_lo:=0.2, filter_tau:=200.0);
// 2. PID controller
pid(
ACTUAL := pressure_AI.pv, // Process variable
SET_POINT := pressure_sp, // Setpoint
KP := Kp,
TI := Ti,
TD := Td,
CYCLE := Tscan,
MANUAL := NOT auto_mode,
MANUAL_IN := manual_output / 100.0, // Bumpless transfer
LMN => valve_pct_norm // 0.0-1.0 output
);
valve_pct := valve_pct_norm * 100.0;
// 3. Write analog output
valve_AO(setpoint_eng:=valve_pct, rate_limit:=20.0, // 20%/s max
fault_active:=NOT pressure_AI.status_ok);
AO_valve_raw := valve_AO.raw_out;
// Anti-windup: integral is automatically limited in CONT_C
// Bumpless transfer: MANUAL_IN pre-loads integrator
// Derivative filter: CONT_C applies built-in derivative filter
// Output clamping: 0-100% with back-calculation anti-windupCalibration establishes the relationship between a measuring instrument's indication and the true value, using reference standards traceable to national metrology institutes. In process industries, calibration is a regulatory requirement. Understanding calibration procedures, error budgets, and how to maintain traceability is essential for any analog measurement system used in safety, quality, or custody transfer.
Walk through a real two-point calibration. The transmitter has injected zero and span errors. Apply reference signals and correct them. See error before and after calibration.
| Error source | Typical value | Correctable? | Combination method |
|---|---|---|---|
| Transmitter ref. accuracy | ±0.05–0.2% FS | By calibration | RSS (random) |
| Temperature drift | ±0.02–0.1%/10°C | Partial | Systematic (add) |
| Long-term drift | ±0.05–0.2%/year | By recalibration | Systematic |
| ADC quantisation | ±0.5 LSB | No (inherent) | RSS |
| ADC gain error | ±0.05–0.1% FS | By calibration | Systematic |
| Cable noise (EMI) | ±0.01–0.5% FS | By shielding | RSS |
| Ground loop | ±0.5–5% FS | By isolation | Systematic |
Two-point calibration corrects both offset error and gain error. Apply a known zero-point input (e.g. 4 mA from a calibrator), read the PLC value, adjust the zero parameter until the PLC reads the correct engineering value. Then apply a known span-point input (e.g. 20 mA), adjust the span parameter. This corrects the linear transfer function completely. For HART transmitters, CMD 45 trims zero and CMD 46 trims gain — the correction is stored in the transmitter itself, not in the PLC.
// Two-point calibration procedure — structured text implementation
// For a pressure transmitter 0-100 bar on a 4-20mA loop
VAR
calib_mode : BOOL := FALSE; // Operator enables calibration
calib_step : INT := 0; // 0=idle, 1=zero, 2=span, 3=done
ref_value_zero : REAL := 0.0; // Known reference at zero (bar)
ref_value_span : REAL := 100.0; // Known reference at span (bar)
raw_at_zero : INT; // Captured raw count at zero
raw_at_span : INT; // Captured raw count at span
calibrated_lo : INT; // Calibrated raw_lo
calibrated_hi : INT; // Calibrated raw_hi
calib_confirm : BOOL;
calib_done : BOOL;
// Calculated correction:
ideal_lo : INT := 6554; // Expected 4mA count
ideal_hi : INT := 32767; // Expected 20mA count
zero_error_mA : REAL; // Offset error in mA
span_error_pct : REAL; // Gain error in %
END_VAR
CASE calib_step OF
0: // IDLE
IF calib_mode THEN calib_step := 1; calib_done := FALSE; END_IF;
1: // ZERO POINT — operator applies 4 mA (or 0 bar reference)
// Display instruction on HMI: "Apply zero reference signal"
IF calib_confirm THEN
raw_at_zero := AI_raw_count; // Capture raw count
calibrated_lo := raw_at_zero;
zero_error_mA := INT_TO_REAL(raw_at_zero - ideal_lo)
/ INT_TO_REAL(ideal_hi - ideal_lo) * 16.0;
calib_confirm := FALSE;
calib_step := 2;
END_IF;
2: // SPAN POINT — operator applies 20 mA (or 100 bar reference)
IF calib_confirm THEN
raw_at_span := AI_raw_count;
calibrated_hi := raw_at_span;
span_error_pct := (INT_TO_REAL(raw_at_span - raw_at_zero)
/ INT_TO_REAL(ideal_hi - ideal_lo) - 1.0) * 100.0;
calib_confirm := FALSE;
calib_step := 3;
END_IF;
3: // APPLY calibration and save to retain memory
AI_block.raw_lo := calibrated_lo;
AI_block.raw_hi := calibrated_hi;
calib_done := TRUE;
calib_step := 0;
END_CASE;
// Log calibration: date, technician, before/after values, certificate numberAn error budget quantifies every source of measurement uncertainty and combines them to predict the total system accuracy. Sources include: transmitter accuracy (% of span), transmitter temperature drift (% of span/°C), ADC gain and offset error, cable noise (common mode rejection), PLC filter lag (dynamic error during transient), and digitisation error (quantisation noise). Errors combine as root-sum-of-squares (RSS) if independent and random, or linearly if systematic and correlated. A formal error budget is required for any measurement used in custody transfer, safety shutdown systems, or regulatory compliance.
// Error budget calculation — pressure measurement system
// Transmitter: Endress+Hauser PMC51, 0-100 bar, 4-20mA
// PLC card: Siemens SM331 AI 8×12bit
// Error source breakdown (all as % of full scale):
VAR
// Transmitter errors:
e_transmitter_ref : REAL := 0.075; // ±0.075% FS at reference conditions
e_transmitter_temp : REAL := 0.05; // ±0.05%/10°C × 20°C range = 0.1%
e_transmitter_long : REAL := 0.1; // Long-term drift per year
e_transmitter_vib : REAL := 0.02; // Vibration effect
// Transmission errors:
e_cable_noise : REAL := 0.02; // EMI / noise on cable
e_loop_resistance : REAL := 0.01; // Resistive drop effect
// PLC card errors:
e_adc_gain : REAL := 0.1; // ADC gain error
e_adc_offset : REAL := 0.05; // ADC offset error
e_adc_quantise : REAL := 0.024; // ±0.5 LSB / 2^12 = 0.024%
e_adc_temp : REAL := 0.05; // Temperature drift of ADC
// Combined uncertainty:
e_random : REAL; // RSS of random/independent errors
e_systematic : REAL; // Sum of systematic errors
e_total : REAL; // Total measurement uncertainty
END_VAR
// Random errors (RSS combination):
e_random := SQRT(e_transmitter_ref*e_transmitter_ref
+ e_cable_noise*e_cable_noise
+ e_adc_quantise*e_adc_quantise
+ e_adc_temp*e_adc_temp);
// = √(0.075² + 0.02² + 0.024² + 0.05²) = √(0.00875) = 0.094%
// Systematic errors (direct sum — worst case):
e_systematic := e_transmitter_temp + e_transmitter_long
+ e_adc_gain + e_adc_offset;
// = 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.05 = 0.35%
// Total (random RSS + systematic):
e_total := e_random + e_systematic; // = 0.094 + 0.35 = 0.44% FS
// On 100 bar span: ±0.44 bar total uncertainty
// After calibration: systematic errors reduced → e_total ≈ ±0.12% FSTraceability means calibration certificates form an unbroken chain back to national standards (NIST, NPL, PTB). Every reference instrument used to calibrate field instruments must itself be calibrated against a higher-grade standard, with documented certificates. Calibration intervals are determined by drift rates, process criticality, and regulatory requirements. For SIL-rated instrumentation, the proof test interval (PTI) must be short enough that the probability of undetected dangerous failure remains below the SIL requirement.
// Calibration management data structure
// Store in PLC retain memory or SCADA database
TYPE InstrumentCalibRecord :
STRUCT
tag_id : STRING[16]; // e.g. 'PT-1234'
description : STRING[32]; // 'Reactor inlet pressure'
location : STRING[24];
manufacturer : STRING[16]; // 'Endress+Hauser'
model : STRING[16]; // 'PMC51'
serial : STRING[16];
range_lo : REAL; // 0 bar
range_hi : REAL; // 100 bar
range_units : STRING[8]; // 'bar'
last_calib_date : STRING[12]; // 'YYYY-MM-DD'
next_calib_date : STRING[12];
calib_interval_days : INT := 365;
last_zero_error : REAL; // % FS at last calibration
last_span_error : REAL;
cal_cert_number : STRING[20];
calibrator_id : STRING[16]; // Reference instrument used
calibrator_cert : STRING[20]; // Calibrator certificate number
sil_level : INT := 0; // 0=no SIL, 1=SIL1, 2=SIL2
pti_days : INT := 365; // Proof test interval (safety)
status : STRING[8]; // 'CURRENT', 'DUE', 'OVERDUE'
END_STRUCT
END_TYPE
// ISO 9001 calibration schedule check:
// Run daily in PLC or SCADA:
// IF today > instrument.next_calib_date THEN
// ALARM: 'Calibration overdue: ' + instrument.tag_id
// IF instrument.sil_level >= 2 THEN
// Consider automatic fallback to substitute value
// END_IF
// END_IFAnalog signal faults are more subtle than digital faults. A stuck digital input is obvious; an analog input that reads 2% too high is invisible unless you have reference data. Systematic diagnostics — comparing instruments against each other, monitoring noise levels, tracking drift trends — reveals problems before they cause process upsets.
An analog measurement system has a fault. Use virtual meter probes to measure at each point. Diagnose the root cause before clicking Reveal.
Drag three independent transmitters. Watch the voted value and fault detection. Inject drift or failure on individual channels.
Every analog measurement fault falls into one of five categories: no signal (wire break, lost power), wrong value (mis-scaling, transmitter failure, sensor damage), noisy signal (EMI, ground loop, loose connection), drifting signal (temperature drift, sensor contamination, aging), or stuck signal (frozen transmitter, saturated amplifier). The diagnosis procedure follows the signal from sensor to PLC register, measuring at each stage.
// Analog fault diagnosis tree — systematic approach
//
// FAULT: PLC reads wrong value
//
// Step 1: Check PLC raw count vs expected
// At 4mA (zero): raw should be ~6554 on 16-bit card
// At 20mA (span): raw should be ~32767
// Wrong raw count → problem is in wiring or transmitter
// Correct raw count but wrong PV → scaling error in PLC program
//
// Step 2 (wrong raw): Measure loop current with clamp meter
// Measure mA at PLC input terminals (series in loop)
// Correct mA (e.g. 12mA for 50% process): transmitter OK
// → PLC card fault or scale parameter error
// Wrong mA:
// Measure mA at transmitter output:
// Correct at transmitter, wrong at PLC → cable fault (resistance change)
// Wrong at transmitter:
// Check transmitter supply voltage: should be 18-30V across terminals
// Low voltage: PSU fault, high loop resistance, too many devices in loop
// Correct supply but wrong mA: transmitter fault → replace
//
// FAULT: Signal is noisy (reading oscillates ±X units)
//
// Step 1: Identify noise frequency
// Use HMI trend at fast update rate (100ms)
// 50/60 Hz component → mains coupling (check cable routing/shielding)
// Random high-frequency → VFD switching noise
// Low-frequency drift → temperature, pressure variation, ground loop
//
// Step 2: Noise source isolation
// Disconnect field wiring, short PLC input terminals
// If noise disappears → it came from field cable
// If noise remains → PLC card or backplane noise
// Reconnect cable, remove shield ground:
// If noise decreases → ground loop (multiple ground points)
//
// FAULT: Signal drifts slowly over hours
// Log PV trend for 24 hours
// Correlate with ambient temperature record
// If correlation > 0.8 → temperature drift
// Fix: move transmitter away from heat source, insulate
// If drift is monotonic and accelerating → sensor contamination
// Inspect sensor element, clean or replaceIn critical processes, important measurements are made two or three times and the values are compared. A 2oo3 (two-out-of-three) voting system uses three independent transmitters — if any one disagrees with the other two, it is flagged faulty and the average of the remaining two is used. The PLC detects the disagreement automatically, raises an alarm, and continues operating without process upset. Cross-validation also works between related process variables: in a heat exchanger, inlet temperature, outlet temperature, and heat duty should satisfy energy balance within a known tolerance.
// 2oo3 voting and cross-validation
FUNCTION_BLOCK Vote_2oo3
VAR_INPUT
pv1, pv2, pv3 : REAL; // Three independent measurements
deviation_limit : REAL := 2.0; // Max deviation before alarm (eng units)
END_VAR
VAR_OUTPUT
voted_pv : REAL; // Voted (median) process value
ch1_fault : BOOL; // TRUE if channel 1 differs from others
ch2_fault : BOOL;
ch3_fault : BOOL;
vote_degraded : BOOL; // Only 2 channels agreeing
vote_failed : BOOL; // All 3 disagree — cannot vote
END_VAR
VAR
avg12, avg13, avg23 : REAL;
END_VAR
// Check pairwise agreement
avg12 := (pv1 + pv2) / 2.0;
avg13 := (pv1 + pv3) / 2.0;
avg23 := (pv2 + pv3) / 2.0;
ch1_fault := ABS(pv1 - avg23) > deviation_limit;
ch2_fault := ABS(pv2 - avg13) > deviation_limit;
ch3_fault := ABS(pv3 - avg12) > deviation_limit;
vote_failed := ch1_fault AND ch2_fault AND ch3_fault;
IF NOT vote_failed THEN
// Median value from agreeing channels
IF ch1_fault THEN
voted_pv := avg23; // Use channels 2 and 3
vote_degraded := TRUE;
ELSIF ch2_fault THEN
voted_pv := avg13; // Use channels 1 and 3
vote_degraded := TRUE;
ELSIF ch3_fault THEN
voted_pv := avg12; // Use channels 1 and 2
vote_degraded := TRUE;
ELSE
voted_pv := (pv1 + pv2 + pv3) / 3.0; // All agree — use average
vote_degraded := FALSE;
END_IF;
ELSE
voted_pv := (pv1 + pv2 + pv3) / 3.0; // Fallback — no reliable vote
END_IF;
END_FUNCTION_BLOCKIO-Link (IEC 61131-9) has fundamentally changed analog sensor intelligence. An IO-Link pressure sensor transmits not just the pressure value but also: internal temperature, number of overrange events, accumulated operating hours, peak pressure recorded, and self-diagnostic flags. This data enables predictive maintenance without additional instruments. A transmitter that has seen 10,000 pressure shocks above its rated range is close to membrane fatigue — change it before it fails, not after.
// IO-Link analog sensor extended data
// Example: SICK PBS pressure transmitter with IO-Link
TYPE IO_Link_Pressure_Data :
STRUCT
// Process data (cyclic, every master cycle):
pressure_bar : REAL; // Primary measurement
temperature_C : REAL; // Internal temperature
output_mA : REAL; // Actual 4-20mA output (diagnostic)
// Device status (cyclic status bits):
overrange : BOOL; // PV exceeds calibrated range
underrange : BOOL;
power_fault : BOOL; // Supply voltage out of range
device_error : BOOL;
// Diagnostic data (acyclic, polled every 60s):
operating_hours : DWORD; // Total powered hours
process_shocks : DWORD; // Count of overrange pressure events
peak_pressure : REAL; // Maximum pressure ever seen
min_pressure : REAL; // Minimum pressure ever seen
internal_temp_max: REAL; // Peak internal temperature recorded
signal_quality : REAL; // % signal quality (100=perfect)
calibration_date : DWORD; // Unix timestamp of last calibration
END_STRUCT
END_TYPE
// Predictive alarm logic:
// Run in PLC every 60 seconds:
IF sensor_data.process_shocks > 5000 THEN
ALARM_SET('PT-1234', 'PREDICTIVE', 'Shock count > 5000 — schedule replacement');
END_IF;
IF sensor_data.operating_hours > 35000 THEN // ~4 years
ALARM_SET('PT-1234', 'MAINTENANCE', 'Operating life > 35,000h — verify calibration');
END_IF;
IF sensor_data.signal_quality < 80.0 THEN
ALARM_SET('PT-1234', 'WARNING', 'Signal quality degraded — check process connection');
END_IF;
IF sensor_data.internal_temp_max > 85.0 THEN
ALARM_SET('PT-1234', 'WARNING', 'Transmitter peak temperature exceeded — check installation');
END_IF;4–20 mA maths, RTD physics, filter design, PID, calibration, and fault diagnosis — all tested with full engineering explanations.
A 4–20 mA current loop transmitter measures 0–100 bar. The PLC reads a raw count of 11648 on a 16-bit card (0–32767 full scale, where 0 = 0 mA and 32767 = 20 mA). What is the engineering pressure value?
Why is the 4–20 mA standard preferred over 0–20 mA for long-distance industrial signal transmission?
What is the difference between a "2-wire" and "4-wire" transmitter connection?
A PT100 RTD reads 109.73 Ω at operating temperature. Using the Callendar-Van Dusen equation approximation R(T) = R0 × (1 + 3.9083×10⁻³T − 5.775×10⁻⁷T²), what is the approximate temperature?
What is "common mode rejection ratio" (CMRR) in an analog input amplifier, and why does it matter?
What is "gain error" vs "offset error" vs "linearity error" in an ADC? Which is correctable by simple calibration?
A PLC analog output drives a control valve positioner. The valve jitters continuously. Increasing the output filter time eliminates the jitter. What was the root cause?
You must measure a 0–10 bar pressure with 0.1 bar resolution. What minimum ADC resolution is required?
What causes "ground loop" interference specifically in analog signal circuits, and how is it eliminated?
What is the purpose of a "sample and hold" circuit ahead of an ADC in a multiplexed analog input card?